Difference between revisions of "Glass"

Latest revision as of 13:47, 5 October 2024

Sicilian lava vase
MFA Acc. #: 1992.82

Description

Cluthra vase
MFA Acc. #: 1993.4

A hard, brittle, amorphous inorganic material made by fusing Silica at high temperatures with two or more metal oxides. Though rare, glass is also naturally produced by volcanic activity (Obsidian), meteor strikes (Tektite) and lightening strikes (Fulgurite). Glass was first made in the Middle East during the 3rd millennium BCE. For glass manufacture, silica is obtained from Sand, Flint, Quartz or broken bits of glass. The fusion point of silica is lowered by mixing it with one or more fluxes (Soda ash, Potash, Lime and oxides of lead, lithium, cerium etc.) Typical glass, such as soda-lime, contains about 75% silica, 15% soda and 10% lime. The components are melted to approximately 700-1000 C, then formed into various shapes by blowing, casting, floating, pressing, or rolling. The glass is cooled to a rigid Vitreous material. As glass ages, it can become Crystalline or Devitrify. Buried glass can have an iridescent surface caused when the metal oxides are dissolved leaving small plates of silicic acid on the surface. Glass is normally colorless and transparent. Small amounts of inorganic materials are used to make glass colored or opaque (see Glass colorants).

Bell glass over model
MFA Acc. #: 32.166

Glasses are mixtures typically containing formers, fluxes, and stabilizers.

Formers make up the largest percentage of the melted mixture. Silicon dioxide(SiO2), usually as sand, is the primary former.
Fluxes lower the temperature at which the formers will melt. Soda (Sodium carbonate, Na2O) and Potash (Potassium carbonate, K2O), both alkalis, are common fluxes. The fluxes, however, also weaken the glass bonds and make them more soluble in water.
Stabilizers make the glass strong and water resistant. Lime (Calcium oxide, CaO) and/or limestone (Calcium carbonate, CaCO3), are the primary stabilizers. Without a stabilizer, water and humidity will slowly attack and dissolve glass.

For detailed information on the history, technology and care for glass objects, please see the AIC Wiki for:

Glass (Objects Specialty Group): Glass

Synonyms and Related Terms

common glass; sklo (Ces.); glas (Dan., Ned., Nor., Sven.); Glas (Deut.); vidrio (Esp.); verre (Fr.); vetro (It.); vidro (Port.); sticla (Rom.); ; Carrara® glass [PPG]; Pyrex

FTIR (MFA)

Applications

Cases, windows, facades, mirrors, lights
Insulation, reinforcement, decoration
Bottles, containers, tableware
Optical cables, computer screens

Physical and Chemical Properties

Insoluble in all solvents except hydrofluoric acid.
Fracture = conchoidal
Warm to touch compared to minerals

Type of Glass	Properties	Applications	Chemical composition (wt%)	Density at 20 °C, [g/cm3], x1000 to get [kg/m3]	Refractive index nD[8] at 20 °C
Soda–lime glass	Most common and least expensive; high light transmission; chemically stable; resistant to abrasion, resistant to electrical current	Windows, glassware	74 SiO2, 13 Na2O, 10.5 CaO, 1.3 Al2O3, 0.3 K2O, 0.2 SO3, 0.2 MgO, 0.01 TiO2, 0.04 Fe2O3	2.52	1.518
Borosilicate (Pyrex, Duran)	High optical quality, broad range of light transmission (UV, Vis, NIR); resistant to thermal shock, thermal expansion and cracks	Optical windows, mirror, filters, display glass, imaging techniques	81 SiO2, 12.5 B2O3, 4 Na2O, 2.2 Al2O3, 0.02 CaO, 0.06 K2O	2.235	1.473
Glass wool	Fluffy blanket or pad of glass fibers; high thermal insultation	Filtration, thermal insulationm(batting, pipe wrapping); ceiling tiles; decorative media	63 SiO2, 16 Na2O, 8 CaO, 3.3 B2O3, 5 Al2O3, 3.5 MgO, 0.8 K2O, 0.3 Fe2O3, 0.2 SO3	2.55	1.531
Optical glass (lead crystal)	A clear, flawless glass with a very controlled refractive index; may be cooled slowly or annealed to minimize distortions	Lenses, microscopes, telescopes, binoculars, cameras, prisms, or other imaging techniques	41.2 SiO2, 34.1 PbO, 12.4 BaO, 6.3 ZnO, 3.0 K2O, 2.5 CaO, 0.35 Sb2O3, 0.2 As2O3	3.86	1.65
Fused silica	Very pure; low thermal expansion, Excellent opticals properties including high transmission in the UV	Instrument components, optical plates, pressure windows	SiO2	2.2	1.459

Resources and Citations

Corning Museum of Glass: Chemistry of Glass
Gem Identification Lab Manual, Gemological Institute of America, 2016.
R.Hummel, Understanding Materials Science: History, Properties, Applications, Springer, New York, 1998.
K.Cummings, "Glass", The Dictionary of Art, Grove's Dictionaries, New York, 1996.
Encyclopedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com Comment: glass" [Accessed October 17, 2001]. gives date as 2500 BC in History of Glassmaking entry
Wikipedia: Glass (Accessed Jan. 2006 and Oct. 2023)
R. J. Gettens, G.L. Stout, Painting Materials, A Short Encyclopaedia, Dover Publications, New York, 1966
Dictionary of Building Preservation, Ward Bucher, ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York City, 1996
Tom Rowland, Noel Riley, A-Z Guide to Cleaning, Conserving and Repairing Antiques, Constable and Co., Ltd., London, 1981
Michael McCann, Artist Beware, Watson-Guptill Publications, New York City, 1979
Jack Odgen, Jewellery of the Ancient World, Rizzoli International Publications Inc., New York City, 1982
Susan E. Schur, Conservation Terminology: A review of Past & Current Nomenclature of Materials, Technology and Conservation, Spring (p.34-39); Summer (p.35-38); Fall (p.25-36), 1985
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Robert Weast (ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, v. 61, 1980 Comment: density for common glass=2.4-2.8; flint glass=2.9-5.9

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 [[File:1992.82-SC41932.jpg|thumb|Sicilian lava vase<br>MFA Acc. #: 1992.82]]
 == Description ==
+[[File:1993.4-SC41936.jpg|thumb|Cluthra vase<br>MFA Acc. #: 1993.4]]
+A hard, brittle, amorphous inorganic material made by fusing [[silica]] at high temperatures with two or more metal oxides. Though rare, glass is also naturally produced by volcanic activity ([[obsidian]]), meteor strikes ([[tektite]]) and lightening strikes ([[fulgurite]]). Glass was first made in the Middle East during the 3rd millennium BCE. For glass manufacture, silica is obtained from [[sand]], [[flint]], [[quartz]] or broken bits of glass. The fusion point of silica is lowered by mixing it with one or more fluxes ([[soda ash]], [[potash]], [[lime]] and oxides of [[Lead oxide|lead]], [[Lithium oxide|lithium]], [[Cerium oxide|cerium]] etc.) Typical glass, such as soda-lime, contains about 75% silica, 15% soda and 10% lime. The components are melted to approximately 700-1000 C, then formed into various shapes by [[Blown glass|blowing]], [[Cast glass|casting]], [[Float glass|floating]], [[Pressed glass|pressing]], or [[Rolled glass|rolling]]. The glass is cooled to a rigid [[vitreous]] material. As glass ages, it can become [[crystalline]] or [[Devitrified glass|Devitrify]]. Buried glass can have an [[Iridescence|iridescent]] surface caused when the metal oxides are dissolved leaving small plates of silicic acid on the surface. Glass is normally colorless and transparent. Small amounts of inorganic materials are used to make glass colored or opaque (see [[glass colorants]]).
+[[File:Image3_802433.jpg|thumb|Bell glass over model<br>MFA Acc. #: 32.166]]
-A hard, brittle, amorphous inorganic material made by fusing [[silica]] at high temperatures with two or more metal oxides. Though rare, glass is also naturally produced by volcanic activity ([[obsidian]]), meteor strikes ([[tektite]]) and lightening strikes ([[fulgurite]]). Glass was first made in the Middle East during the 3rd millennium BCE. For glass manufacture, silica is obtained from [[sand]], [[flint]], [[quartz]] or broken bits of glass. The fusion point of silica is lowered by mixing it with one or more fluxes ([[soda ash]], [[potash]], [[lime]] and oxides of [[Lead oxide|lead]], [[Lithium oxide|lithium]], [[Cerium oxide|cerium]] etc.) Typical glass, such as soda-lime, contains about 75% silica, 15% soda and 10% lime. The components are melted to approximately 700-1000 C, then formed into various shapes by [[Blown glass|blowing]], [[Cast glass|casting]], [[Float glass|floating]], [[Pressed glass|pressing]], or [[Rolled glass|rolling]]. The glass is cooled to a rigid [[vitreous]] material. As glass ages, it can become [[crystalline]] or [[Devitrified glass|devitrify]]. Buried glass can have an iridescent surface caused when the metal oxides are dissolved leaving small plates of silicic acid on the surface. Glass is normally colorless and transparent. Small amounts of inorganic materials are used to make glass colored or opaque (see [[glass colorants]]).
+Glasses are mixtures typically containing formers, fluxes, and stabilizers.
+* Formers make up the largest percentage of the melted mixture. [[Silicon dioxide]](SiO2), usually as sand, is the primary former.
+* Fluxes lower the temperature at which the formers will melt. Soda ([[Sodium carbonate]], Na2O) and Potash ([[Potassium carbonate]], K2O), both alkalis, are common fluxes. The fluxes, however, also weaken the glass bonds and make them more soluble in water.
+* Stabilizers make the glass strong and water resistant. Lime ([[Calcium oxide]], CaO) and/or limestone ([[Calcium carbonate]], CaCO3), are the primary stabilizers. Without a stabilizer, water and humidity will slowly attack and dissolve glass.
-[[File:1993.4-SC41936.jpg|thumb|Cluthra vase<br>MFA Acc. #: 1993.4]]
+For detailed information on the history, technology and care for glass objects, please see the AIC Wiki for:
-[[File:Image3_802433.jpg|thumb|Bell glass over model<br>MFA Acc. #: 32.166]]
+* Glass (Objects Specialty Group): [https://www.conservation-wiki.com/wiki/Glass Glass]
 == Synonyms and Related Terms ==
@@ Line 11: / Line 17: @@
 common glass; sklo (Ces.); glas (Dan., Ned., Nor., Sven.); Glas (Deut.); vidrio (Esp.); verre (Fr.); vetro (It.); vidro (Port.); sticla (Rom.); ; Carrara® glass [PPG]; Pyrex
-See also: [[agate glass]]; [[alumina glass]]; [[amber glass]]; [[basalt glass]]; [[borosilicate glass]]; [[cameo glass]]; [[canary glass]]; [[Carrara glass]]; [[case glass]]; [[crackle glass]]; [[cobalt glass]]; [[copper ruby glass]]; [[crown glass]]; [[crystal glass]]; [[cylinder glass]]; [[dichroic glass]]; [[Favrile glass]]; [[flash glass]]; [[flint glass]]; [[frosted glass]]; [[gold ruby glass]]; [[green glass]]; [[heat-resistant glass]]; [[iridescent glass]]; [[lead glass]]; [[Luxfer prism glass]]; [[milk glass]]; [[opal glass]]; [[optical glass]]; [[plate glass]]; [[potash glass]]; [[potash-lead glass]]; [[safety glass]]; [[silica glass]]; [[soda glass]]; [[stained glass]]; [[structural glass]]; [[tempered glass]]; [[Tiffany glass]]; [[water glass]]; [[window glass]]; [[glass bead]]; [[glass fabric]]; [[glass fiber]]; [[glass paper]]; [[glass rot]]; [[glass wool]]; [[microballoon]]
+See also: [[agate glass]]; [[alumina glass]]; [[amber glass]]; [[basalt glass]]; [[borosilicate glass]]; [[cameo glass]]; [[canary glass]]; [[Carrara glass]]; [[case glass]]; [[crackle glass]]; [[cobalt glass]]; [[copper ruby glass]]; [[crown glass]]; [[crystal glass]]; [[cylinder glass]]; [[dichroic glass]]; [[Favrile glass]]; [[flash glass]]; [[flint glass]]; [[frosted glass]]; [[gold ruby glass]]; [[green glass]]; [[heat-resistant glass]]; [[iridescent glass]]; [[lead glass]]; [[Luxfer prism glass]]; [[milk glass]]; [[opal glass]]; [[optical glass]]; [[plate glass]]; [[potash glass]]; [[potash-lead glass]]; [[safety glass]]; [[silica glass]]; [[soda glass]]; [[stained glass]]; [[structural glass]]; [[tempered glass]]; [[Tiffany glass]]; [[water glass]]; [[window glass]]; [[glass bead]]; [[glass fabric]]; [[glass fiber]]; [[glass paper]]; [[glass rot]]; [[glass wool]]; [[Glazing comparison (Clear plastic sheets)|glazing]]; [[microballoon]]
 [[[SliderGallery rightalign|YG95 glass.TIF~FTIR (MFA)]]]
 == Applications ==
 * Cases, windows, facades, mirrors, lights
@@ Line 20: / Line 25: @@
 * Optical cables, computer screens
-== Risks ==
+== Physical and Chemical Properties ==
-== Physical and Chemical Properties ==
+* Insoluble in all solvents except hydrofluoric acid.
+* Fracture = conchoidal
+* Warm to touch compared to minerals
-*Insoluble in all solvents except hydrofluoric acid.
+{| class="wikitable"
-* Density (glass) =2.4-2.8
+|-
-* Density (flint) =2.9-5.9
+! Type   of Glass
+! Properties
+! Applications
+! Chemical composition (wt%)
+! Density at 20 °C,   [g/cm3], x1000 to get [kg/m3]
+! Refractive   index nD[8] at 20 °C
+|-
+| Soda–lime   glass
+| Most common and least expensive;   high light transmission; chemically stable; resistant to abrasion, resistant   to electrical current
+| Windows, glassware
+| 74 SiO2, 13 Na2O,   10.5 CaO, 1.3 Al2O3, 0.3 K2O, 0.2 SO3, 0.2 MgO,   0.01 TiO2, 0.04 Fe2O3
+| 2.52
+| 1.518
+|-
+| Borosilicate (Pyrex, Duran)
+| High optical quality, broad   range of light transmission (UV, Vis, NIR); resistant to thermal shock,   thermal expansion and cracks
+| Optical windows, mirror,   filters, display glass, imaging techniques
+| 81 SiO2,   12.5 B2O3, 4 Na2O, 2.2 Al2O3, 0.02 CaO, 0.06 K2O
+| 2.235
+| 1.473
+|-
+| Glass   wool
+| Fluffy blanket or pad of glass   fibers; high thermal insultation
+| Filtration, thermal   insulationm(batting, pipe wrapping); ceiling tiles; decorative media
+| 63 SiO2, 16   Na2O, 8 CaO, 3.3 B2O3, 5 Al2O3, 3.5 MgO, 0.8 K2O, 0.3 Fe2O3, 0.2 SO3
+| 2.55
+| 1.531
+|-
+| Optical glass   (lead crystal)
+| A clear, flawless glass with a   very controlled refractive index; may be cooled slowly or annealed to   minimize distortions
+| Lenses, microscopes, telescopes,   binoculars, cameras, prisms, or other imaging techniques
+| 41.2 SiO2,   34.1 PbO, 12.4 BaO, 6.3 ZnO, 3.0 K2O, 2.5 CaO, 0.35 Sb2O3,   0.2 As2O3
+| 3.86
+| 1.65
+|-
+| Fused silica
+| Very pure; low thermal   expansion, Excellent opticals properties including high transmission in the   UV
+| Instrument components, optical   plates, pressure windows
+| SiO2
+| 2.2
+| 1.459
+|}
 ==Resources and Citations ==
+* Corning Museum of Glass: [https://www.cmog.org/article/chemistry-glass Chemistry of Glass]
+* Gem Identification Lab Manual, Gemological Institute of America, 2016.
 * R.Hummel, ''Understanding Materials Science: History, Properties, Applications'', Springer, New York, 1998.
 * K.Cummings, "Glass", ''The Dictionary of Art,'' Grove's Dictionaries, New York, 1996.
 * ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', http://www.britannica.com  Comment: glass"   [Accessed October 17, 2001]. gives date as 2500 BC in History of Glassmaking entry
+* Wikipedia: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass Glass] (Accessed Jan. 2006 and Oct. 2023)
-* Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass (Accessed Jan. 25, 2006)
 * R. J. Gettens, G.L. Stout, ''Painting Materials, A Short Encyclopaedia'', Dover Publications, New York, 1966
 * ''Dictionary of Building Preservation'', Ward Bucher, ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York City, 1996
 * Tom Rowland, Noel Riley, ''A-Z Guide to Cleaning, Conserving and Repairing Antiques'', Constable and Co., Ltd., London, 1981
 * Michael McCann, ''Artist Beware'', Watson-Guptill Publications, New York City, 1979
 * Jack Odgen, ''Jewellery of the Ancient World'', Rizzoli International Publications Inc., New York City, 1982
 * Susan E. Schur, Conservation Terminology: A review of Past & Current Nomenclature of Materials, ''Technology and Conservation'', Spring (p.34-39); Summer (p.35-38); Fall (p.25-36), 1985
 * ''CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics'', Robert Weast (ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, v. 61, 1980  Comment: density for common glass=2.4-2.8; flint glass=2.9-5.9
-[[Category:Materials database]]
+[[Category:Materials database]][[Category: MWG]][[Category:Glazing]]