Difference between revisions of "Fiber"

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[[File:99.134-SC58897.jpg|thumb|]]
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[[File:99.134-SC58897.jpg|thumb|Coiled fiber basket<br>MFA# 99.134]]
 
== Description ==
 
== Description ==
  
−
A long, thin filament with a length at least 100 times its diameter. Fibers are used to make fabric, paper, mats and as fillers and strengtheners in composite materials.  
+
A long, thin filament with a length at least 100 times its diameter. Fibers are used to make fabric, paper, mats and as fillers and strengtheners in composite materials. Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural fibers, but for clothing natural fibers have some benefits, such as comfort, over their synthetic counterparts. 
  
−
Sources of fibers are:  
+
Examples of each type include:
 +
* [[Animal fibers|Animal]]: [[wool]], [[alpaca]], [[mohair]], [[angora]], [[silk]].
 +
* [[Vegetable fiber|Vegetable]]: [[abaca]], [[coir]], [[cotton]], [[hemp]], [[jute]], [[kapok]], [[kenaf]], [[linen]], [[Piña]], [[ramie]], [[sisal]]
 +
* [[Synthetic fiber|Synthetic]]: [[acetate%20fiber|Acetate]], [[acrylic%20fiber|Acrylic]], [[alginic%20fiber|Alginic]], [[anidex%20fiber|Anidex]], [[aramid%20fiber|Aramid]], [[azlon%20fiber|Azlon]], [[casein%20fiber|Casein]], [[cellulose%20nitrate|Cellulose nitrate]], [[cupro%20fiber|Cupro]], [[nylon%20fiber|Nylon]], [[novoloid%20fiber|Novoloid]], [[nytril%20fiber|Nytril]], [[modacrylic%20fiber|Modacrylic]], [[modal%20fiber|Modal]], [[olefin%20fiber|Olefin]], [[polyester%20fiber|Polyester]], [[Polyethylene fiber|polyethylene]], [[Polypropylene fiber|polypropylene]], [[rayon fiber|Rayon]], [[saran%20fiber|Saran]], [[spandex%20fiber|Spandex]], [[sulfar|Sulfar]], [[triacetate%20fiber|Triacetate]], [[vinal%20fiber|Vinal]], and [[vinyon%20fiber|Vinyon]].
 +
* Inorganic ([[Mineral fiber|Mineral]]): [[asbestos]], [[glass fiber|Glass]], [[carbon fiber|Carbon]], [[graphite fiber|Graphite]], [[steel]], [[tungsten wire|Tungsten]].
  
−
- animal: [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=wool wool], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=alpaca alpaca], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=mohair mohair], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=angora angora], and [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=silk silk].
+
The types of fiber are characterized as:
  
−
- vegetable: [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=cotton cotton], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=kapok kapok], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=linen linen], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=hemp hemp], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=jute jute].  
+
* staple: short fibers.
 +
* [[monofilament|monofilaments]]: continuous single fibers.  
 +
* [[tow]]: a continuous strand of bundled but untwisted fibers.  
 +
* [[yarn]]: a continuous strand of twisted fibers.
  
−
- synthetic: [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=rayon%20fiber rayon], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=nylon%20fiber nylon], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=acetate%20fiber acetate], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=polyester%20fiber polyester], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=acrylic%20fiber acrylic].
+
Physical characteristics of fibers include:
 +
* shape, strength, elasticity, flexibility, weight, stability and ability to absorb moisture
  
−
- mineral: [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=asbestos asbestos], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=glass%20fiber glass], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=carbon%20fiber carbon], [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=tungsten%20fiber tungsten].  
+
==Properties of Synthetic Fibers (Part 1)==
−
 
+
{| class="wikitable"
−
The types of fiber are characterized as:
+
|-
−
 
+
! Fiber
−
- staple: short fibers.  
+
! Composition
−
 
+
! Development  date
−
- [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=monofilament monofilaments]: continuous single fibers.  
+
! Common trade  name
−
 
+
! colspan="2" | Density
−
- [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=tow tow]: a continuous strand of bundled but untwisted fibers.  
+
! Denier  (g/9000m)
−
 
+
! Tenacity  (g/denier)
−
  - [http://cameo.mfa.org/materials/fullrecord.asp?name=yarn yarn]: a continuous strand of twisted fibers.
+
! colspan="2" | Elongation at break (%)
 +
! Initial  modulus
 +
! Moisture<br />    regain (%)
 +
|-
 +
| acetate
 +
| cellulose triacetate
 +
| 1919
 +
| Celanese;  Arnel;<br />    Tenite
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.25-1.35
 +
|
 +
| 1.1-1.4<br />    (dry); 0.65-<br />    0.75 wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 25-35 (dry);<br />    35-45 (wet)
 +
| 35-40
 +
| 6.5
 +
|-
 +
| acrylic
 +
| >85% acrylonitrile
 +
| 1950
 +
| Acrilan,  Creslan, Courtelle, Orlon
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.16-1.18
 +
| 2-8
 +
| 2-3.6  (dry)
 +
| colspan="2" | 20-55
 +
| 25-63
 +
| 1.0-3.0
 +
|-
 +
| aramid (meta)
 +
| poly-m-phenylene terephthalamide
 +
|
 +
| Nomex,  Conex
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.38
 +
| 2-5
 +
| 3-6
 +
| colspan="2" | 2-30
 +
| 130-150
 +
| 3.5
 +
|-
 +
| aramid (para)
 +
| poly-p-phenylene terephthalamide
 +
| 1965
 +
| Kevlar
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.44
 +
| 1.0-1.5
 +
| 25-30
 +
| colspan="2" | 3-6
 +
| 500-<br />    1000
 +
| 7.0
 +
|-
 +
| azlon
 +
| protein
 +
| 1930s
 +
| Aralac,   Ardil, Lanital
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.25-1.3
 +
|
 +
| 0.9-1.1<br />    (dry); 0.3-<br />    0.6 (wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 60-70
 +
|
 +
| 14
 +
|-
 +
| modacrylic
 +
| 35-85% acrylonitrile
 +
| 1949
 +
| Dynel;  Verel, SEF
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.35-1.37
 +
| 2-8
 +
| 1.8-2.5<br />    (dry); 1.7-<br />    2.4 (wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 35-48
 +
| 25-56
 +
| 0.4-4.0
 +
|-
 +
| nylon 6
 +
| polycaprolactam
 +
| 1939
 +
| Perlon;  Kapron, Power silk
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.14
 +
| 1.5-5
 +
| 3.8-8.3<br />    (dry); 3.5-<br />    7.1 (wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 16-50 (dry);<br />    19-55 (wet)
 +
| 25-35
 +
| 3.5-5.0
 +
|-
 +
| nylon 6,6
 +
| polyhexamethylene adipamide
 +
| 1935
 +
| Fiber  66; Antron; Stainmaster
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.14
 +
| 1.5-5
 +
| 4.6-9.0<br />    (dry); 4.0-<br />    7.7 (wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 19-40%<br />    (dry); 32-<br />    46% (wet)
 +
| 33-46
 +
| 3.8-4.5
 +
|-
 +
| nytril
 +
| >85% vinylidene dintrile
 +
| 1955;<br />    discontinued in 1970s
 +
| Darvan
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.18
 +
|
 +
| 2.0  (dry);<br />    1.7 (wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 30
 +
|
 +
| 2-3
 +
|-
 +
| polyester
 +
| polyester terephthalate
 +
| 1941
 +
| Dacron,  Terylene; Hollytex
 +
| colspan="2" |
 +
| 1.5-5
 +
| 2.2-9.5
 +
| colspan="2" | 10-50
 +
| 25-50
 +
| 0.1-0.4
 +
|-
 +
| polyethylene
 +
| high density polyethylene
 +
| 1954
 +
| Tyvek;  Reevon
 +
| colspan="2" | 0.95-0.96
 +
| 2-10
 +
| 5.0-8.0
 +
| colspan="2" | 14-20
 +
|
 +
| <0.1
 +
|-
 +
| polypropylene
 +
| polypropylene
 +
| 1957
 +
| Herculon,  Marvess
 +
| colspan="2" | 0.85-0.94
 +
| 2-10
 +
| 3.5-9.0
 +
| colspan="2" | 15-35
 +
| 29-45
 +
| <0.1
 +
|-
 +
| polyurethane
 +
| >85%polyurethane
 +
| 1958
 +
| spandex,  Lycra
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.20-1.25
 +
| 2.5-20
 +
| 0.5-1.5
 +
| colspan="2" | 500-700
 +
|
 +
| 0.3-1.2
 +
|-
 +
| polyvinyl chloride
 +
| >85% vinyl chloride units
 +
|
 +
| vinyon;<br />    Evilon, Thermovyl
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.38-1.40
 +
|
 +
| 2.7-3.0  (wet<br />    or dry)
 +
| colspan="2" | 12-20
 +
|
 +
| 0
 +
|-
 +
| rayon (cupro)
 +
| regenerated cellulose
 +
| 1890
 +
| Cuprama;  Cupresa
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.54
 +
| 2-3
 +
| 1.7-2.3<br />    (dry); 1.1-<br />    1.135 (wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 10-17 (dry);<br />    17-23 (wet)
 +
|
 +
| 11-12.5
 +
|-
 +
| rayon (viscose)
 +
| regenerated cellulose
 +
| 1892
 +
| Avtex
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.46-1.54
 +
| 2-3
 +
| 2.0-2.6<br />    (wdry); 1.0-<br />    1.5 (wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 13-15 (dry);<br />    20-40 (wet)
 +
|
 +
| 11-16.6
 +
|-
 +
| vinal
 +
| >50% vinyl alcohol units
 +
| 1924
 +
| Synthofil;  Vinylon
 +
| colspan="2" | 1.26-1.30
 +
|
 +
| 3.0  -8.5<br />    (dry); 3.2-<br />    7.6 (wet)
 +
| colspan="2" | 9-26 (dry);<br />    10-27 (wet)
 +
|
 +
| 3.0-9.0
 +
|}
 +
==Properties of Synthetic Fibers (Part 2)==
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
! Fiber
 +
! colspan="2" | Degradation
 +
! colspan="2" | Dyes used
 +
! colspan="3" | Microscopic characteristics
 +
! colspan="3" | Applications
 +
|-
 +
| acetate
 +
| colspan="2" | Degrades in acids and concentrated alkalis
 +
| colspan="2" | disperse
 +
| colspan="3" | irregular cross section with multiple lobes;  lengthwise striations
 +
| colspan="3" | coats, suits, linings, cigarette filters
 +
|-
 +
| acrylic
 +
| colspan="2" | Susceptible to heat; accumulates static  charge
 +
| colspan="2" | basic, disperse, pigment
 +
| colspan="3" | variable cross section
 +
| colspan="3" | subsitute for wool in coats, sweaters,  hosiery, blankets, filters
 +
|-
 +
| aramid (meta)
 +
| colspan="2" | Degraded by acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents  and UV light
 +
| colspan="2" |
 +
| colspan="3" | fiber is smooth; cross section is dogbone
 +
| colspan="3" | filter bags for hot stack gases,  flame-resistant clothing
 +
|-
 +
| aramid (para)
 +
| colspan="2" | Degraded by acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents  and UV light
 +
| colspan="2" |
 +
| colspan="3" | fiber is smooth, cross section is circular
 +
| colspan="3" | radial tires belts, bulletproof vests, resin  reinforcements
 +
|-
 +
| azlon
 +
| colspan="2" | Degraded by alkalis; weak when wet;  susceptible to microbiological growths
 +
| colspan="2" |
 +
| colspan="3" | diameter=20-30 microns, cross section is  circular or bean-shaped, filament is smooth
 +
| colspan="3" | silk substitute
 +
|-
 +
| modacrylic
 +
| colspan="2" | Resistant to alkalis and acids
 +
| colspan="2" |
 +
| colspan="3" |
 +
| colspan="3" | flame-resistant clothing, artificial fur,  children's sleepwear, tents
 +
|-
 +
| nylon 6
 +
| colspan="2" | Degraded by concentrated acids and phenol;  resistant to alkalis and most organic solvents
 +
| colspan="2" | acid, disperse, mordant, pigment, reactive
 +
| colspan="3" | fiber is smooth, cross section is circular
 +
| colspan="3" | hosiery, lingerie, sports garments,  upholstery
 +
|-
 +
| nylon 6,6
 +
| colspan="2" | Degraded by concentrated acids and phenol;  resistant to alkalis and most organic solvents
 +
| colspan="2" | acid, disperse, mordant, pigment, reactive
 +
| colspan="3" | fiber is smooth, cross section is circular  or trilobal
 +
| colspan="3" | tires, ropes, seat belts, parachutes, fishing  lines and nets; surgical sutures; brushes
 +
|-
 +
| nytril
 +
| colspan="2" | Resistant to sunlight, oxidation and  insects.
 +
| colspan="2" |
 +
| colspan="3" | opaque, white with flattened or hook-shaped  cross section
 +
| colspan="3" | sweaters, pile fabrics, in wool blends
 +
|-
 +
| polyester
 +
| colspan="2" | Degrades in strong acids, strong alkalis and  creson.
 +
| colspan="2" | disperse, pigment
 +
| colspan="3" | smooth fibers; cross section may be  circular, trilobal or polygon
 +
| colspan="3" | permanent press clothing, fiberfill, carpets,  sewing thread, seat belts, yarns, nonwoven fabrics
 +
|-
 +
| polyethylene
 +
| colspan="2" | Resistant to acids, alkalis and bleaches;  dissolves in dry-cleaning solvents, degrades slowly in sunlight
 +
| colspan="2" | basic, disperse pigments
 +
| colspan="3" | cross section is circular or elliptical
 +
| colspan="3" | cordage, webbing; upholstery, outdoor  applications
 +
|-
 +
| polypropylene
 +
| colspan="2" | Resistant to strong acids and alkalis;  resistant to biodeterioration
 +
| colspan="2" | basic, disperse pigments
 +
| colspan="3" | cross section is circular or elliptical
 +
| colspan="3" | upholstery, carpets, ropes, nets, disposable  nonwoven fabrics
 +
|-
 +
| polyurethane
 +
| colspan="2" | Chlorine causes slow degradation
 +
| colspan="2" | acid, disperse, reactive, vat
 +
| colspan="3" |
 +
| colspan="3" | elastomeric fabrics; swimwere; althletic  clothes
 +
|-
 +
| polyvinyl chloride
 +
| colspan="2" | Soluble in chlorinated and aromatic  solvents; degrades with heat and light
 +
| colspan="2" | basic,<br />    disperse, pigment
 +
| colspan="3" | irregular cross section
 +
| colspan="3" | elastomeric fabrics; outdoor fabrics (tents,  awnings, rain gear etc)
 +
|-
 +
| rayon (cupro)
 +
| colspan="2" | Degrades in strong alkalis, acids and  undiluted bleaches. Resistant to dry  cleaning solvents
 +
| colspan="2" |
 +
| colspan="3" | circular cross section with no striations
 +
| colspan="3" | sheer fabrics and netting; lightbulb  filaments
 +
|-
 +
| rayon (viscose)
 +
| colspan="2" | Degrades in strong alkalis, acids and  undiluted bleaches. Resistant to dry  cleaning solvents
 +
| colspan="2" | direct
 +
| colspan="3" | lengthwise striations; early samples have  circular cross sections with serrations, later samples may be dog-boned or  trilobal
 +
| colspan="3" | rugs, cotton substitute, nonwoven fabrics,  paper (cellophane)
 +
|-
 +
| vinal
 +
| colspan="2" | Resistant to microorganisms, insects, and  most chemicals.
 +
| colspan="2" |
 +
| colspan="3" | fibers are smooth; cross section is round,  ben-shaped or u-shaped
 +
| colspan="3" | raincoats, jackets, umbrellas, tarps,  fishnets, awnings.
 +
|}
 +
==Properties of Natural Fibers==
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
! Fiber
 +
! Type
 +
! Source
 +
! Microscopic characteristics
 +
! Fber length
 +
! Fiber width (microns)
 +
! Strength/flexibility
 +
! Appearance
 +
! Other characteristics  (conductivity, density, moisture)
 +
! Deterioration
 +
! Use
 +
|-
 +
| alpaca
 +
| animal
 +
| Lama pacos
 +
| overlapping scales
 +
| 8 cm (undercoat)
 +
|
 +
| elastic and strong
 +
| soft, lustrous; usually white but  may be black or brown
 +
|
 +
|
 +
| textiles, linings
 +
|-
 +
| camel
 +
| animal
 +
| Camelus bactrianus
 +
| overlapping scales; cross section  is circular to oval; medulla is narrow and continuous.
 +
| 30 cm (outer hairs); 2.5-15 cm  (undercoat)
 +
|
 +
| strong; Tensile strength = 1.78  g/d ; elongation = 39-40%
 +
| lightweight, fine, and soft; tan  or brown
 +
| poor heat conductor; moisture  regain=13%
 +
|
 +
| sweaters, scarves, coats,  blankets, brushes
 +
|-
 +
| cashmere
 +
| animal
 +
| Capra hireus
 +
| overlapping scales (5-7 per 100  mincrons)
 +
| 5.0-12.5 cm  (outer);<br />    2.5-9.0 cm (undercoat)
 +
| 15
 +
|
 +
| soft and fine
 +
|
 +
| damaged by alkalis
 +
| shawls, fabrics, dreses, sweaters
 +
|-
 +
| horsehair
 +
| animal
 +
| family Equidae
 +
| overlapping scales
 +
| mane: 7.5-20 cm; tail: 20-90 cm
 +
| mane:   50-150;<br />    tail 75-280
 +
| stiff and elastic; cannot be spun
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
| upholstery, blankets, stuffing
 +
|-
 +
| llama
 +
| animal
 +
| Lama glama
 +
| overlapping scales; medulla is  narrow and often pigmented.  Cross  section is circular to ovoid
 +
| 30 cm (undercoat)
 +
|
 +
|
 +
| smooth, long, fine texture
 +
|
 +
|
 +
| coats, dresses
 +
|-
 +
| mohair
 +
| animal
 +
| Capra angorensis
 +
| overlapping scales (about 5 per  100 microns); circular cross scetion; medulla is normally invisible
 +
| 250-500 mm
 +
|
 +
| resilient, twice as strong as  wool; elongation = 30%
 +
| soft, white, silky
 +
| resists water; moisture  regain=13%
 +
| resistant to soiling;  susceptible to moths
 +
| textiles, upholstery, blankets,  draperies, carpets,
 +
|-
 +
| vicuña
 +
| animal
 +
| Vicugna vicugna
 +
| overlapping scales
 +
| 5 cm
 +
|
 +
|
 +
| soft, lightweight, finer than  alpaca or camel
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| wool
 +
| animal
 +
| Caprinae family
 +
| overlapping scales
 +
| 38-125 mm (fine), 65-150 mm  (med.), 125-375 mm (long)
 +
| 17 ( fine),  24-<br />    34 (medium);<br />    40 (long)
 +
| low tensile strength; good  elasticity; elongation = 25-35%
 +
|
 +
| poor heat conductivity;  density=1.32-1.34; absorbs water and dries slowly; moisture regain=15-18%
 +
| fibers may shrink/felt with high  temperatures and friction; susceptible to moths
 +
| textiles, blankets, carpets
 +
|-
 +
| hemp
 +
| bast
 +
| Cannabis sativa
 +
|
 +
| 1-2 m
 +
| 9-40
 +
| durable and strong but weaker  than flax
 +
|
 +
| resistant to  wear under water
 +
| Damaged by acids and bleaches;  resistant to water and alkalis
 +
| cordage, ropes, sails
 +
|-
 +
| jute
 +
| bast
 +
| Corchorus capsularis
 +
| polygonal cross section (5 or 6  sides); may have discontinuous, fine striations and bundled fibers
 +
| 1.5-3 m
 +
| 7-18
 +
| weaker than hemp or flax;  elongation, = 1.7%(dry)
 +
|
 +
| density=1.5; weak when wet;  moisture regain=13.75%
 +
|
 +
| cordage, coarse textiles, mats,  gunny sacks, carpets
 +
|-
 +
| kenaf
 +
| bast
 +
| Hibiscus cannabinus
 +
| polygonal cross section
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| linen
 +
| bast
 +
| Linum usitatissimum
 +
| bamboo-like joints
 +
| 6-65 mm
 +
| 8-32
 +
| stronger than cotton; elongation  = 1.8% (dry), 2.2% (wet)
 +
| pale yellow
 +
| absorbs water but dries quickly;  moisture regain=12%
 +
| damaged by bleach; not  susceptible to biological growth; resistant to alkalis
 +
| textiles, lace, thread
 +
|-
 +
| ramie
 +
| bast
 +
| Bochmeria nivea
 +
| numerous striations
 +
| 15-20 cm
 +
| 12-82
 +
| stronger than flax or hemp
 +
| lustrous, translucent,stiff,  wrinkles easily
 +
| moisture regain=12%
 +
| Resistant to mildew and insects
 +
| textiles (Chinese linen, Canton  linen, grass cloth, grass linen)
 +
|-
 +
| abaca
 +
| leaf
 +
| Musa textilis
 +
|
 +
| 1-5 m
 +
|
 +
| hard and strong
 +
|
 +
| absorbs moisture readily
 +
|
 +
| cordage
 +
|-
 +
| istle
 +
| leaf
 +
| Agave species
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|
 +
| cordage, coarse textiles, mats,
 +
|-
 +
| pina
 +
| leaf
 +
| Ananas comosus
 +
| oval cross section
 +
| 10-20 cm
 +
|
 +
| strong and flexible
 +
| translucent and thin with silky  luster
 +
|
 +
|
 +
| textiles, mats, bags
 +
|-
 +
| sisal
 +
| leaf
 +
| Agave sisalana
 +
| horseshoe shaped cross section
 +
| 60-120 cm
 +
|
 +
| weaker and less flexible than  hemp
 +
| smooth and straight
 +
| disintegrates in salt water
 +
|
 +
| ropes, twine, thread
 +
|-
 +
| silk
 +
| moths
 +
| many species, such as Bombyx mori
 +
| glass rod; before degumming silk  has irregular masses of sericin holding two filaments together
 +
| 250-750 m
 +
|
 +
| excellent tensile strength; good  elasticity; elongation = 20-25% (dry), 30% (wet)
 +
| very lustrous when degummed
 +
| poor heat conductor; moisture  regain=11%
 +
| strong soaps cause yellowing;  degraded by sunlight; acids cause yellowing; susceptible to carpet beetles
 +
| clothing; decorative fabrics
 +
|-
 +
| coir
 +
| seed hair
 +
| Cocos nucifera
 +
|
 +
| 12-20 cm
 +
|
 +
| stiff and elastic (like  horsehair)
 +
| coarse brown fibers
 +
| resistant to water
 +
|
 +
| ropes,brushes, mats
 +
|-
 +
| cotton
 +
| seed hair
 +
| Gossypium hirsutum
 +
| narrow, twisted ribbon
 +
| 1.6-6.0 cm
 +
|
 +
| high tensile strength; poor  elasticity; elongation = 5-10%
 +
| usually white; turns blue when  treated with iodine and sulphuric acid
 +
| good heat conductivity; poor  electrical conductivity; density=1.54-1.56; absorbs water, dries slowly;  moisture regain=7.0-8.0%
 +
| may mildew, not attacked by  moths; degraded by acids, resistant to alkalis
 +
| textiles, cordage
 +
|-
 +
| kapok
 +
| seed hair
 +
| Ceiba pentandra
 +
| cross section is oval or circular
 +
| 20-32 mm
 +
| 20
 +
| resilient, lightweight
 +
| silky; turns yellow when treated  with iodine and sulphuric acid
 +
| resists water, buoyant, fries  quickly
 +
|
 +
| stuffing (mattresses, pillows,  life preservers)
 +
|}
 +
==Fiber Burn Tests==
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|-
 +
! Fiber
 +
! Appearance
 +
! Odor
 +
! Residue
 +
|-
 +
| colspan="4" | Natural fibers
 +
|-
 +
| Cotton
 +
| Burns very fast with a bright yellow flame, similar to paper
 +
| burnt paper
 +
| burnt ends look bushy
 +
|-
 +
| Linen
 +
| Burns very fast with a bright yellow flame, similar to paper
 +
| burnt paper
 +
| burnt ends appear melted together
 +
|-
 +
| Silk
 +
| Burns and bubbles faster than wool with a yellow flame
 +
| burnt hair (mild)
 +
| black, brittle, spherical beads
 +
|-
 +
| Weighted silk
 +
| Does not burn; the fabric will char
 +
| burnt hair (faint)
 +
| fabric retains shape
 +
|-
 +
| Wool
 +
| Burns slowly; bubbles while burning; easy to put out flame
 +
| burnt hair (strong)
 +
| black, brittle, irregular beads
 +
|-
 +
| colspan="4" | Synthetic fibers
 +
|-
 +
| Acrylic
 +
| Burns readily with smoky flame
 +
| acidic
 +
| hard ash
 +
|-
 +
| Aramid
 +
| Does not burn
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| Cellulose acetate
 +
| Burns fast with a yellow flame; may melt and sputter
 +
| burnt paper
 +
| hard, black beads; similar to silk
 +
|-
 +
| Modacrylic
 +
| Self-extinguishing
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| Nylon
 +
| Melts first, then ignites and burns rapidly.
 +
| burnt plastic
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| Polyester
 +
| Difficult to ignite, self-extinguishing. Burns with shiny,  yellow-orange, sooty flame.
 +
| sweet
 +
| hard ash
 +
|-
 +
| Polyethylene
 +
| Burns with a heavy, sooty, waxy smoke. Softens at 120 C.
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| Polypropylene
 +
| Burns with a heavy, sooty, waxy smoke.
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| Polyurethane
 +
| Burns with bright flame and minimal smoke
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| Polyvinyl chloride
 +
| Burns with green smoky flame, self- extinguishing.
 +
| acidic; releases hydrochloric acid
 +
|
 +
|-
 +
| Rayon (regenerated cellulose)
 +
| Burns very fast with a bright yellow flame, similar to paper
 +
| burnt paper
 +
| light, white ash
 +
|-
 +
| Vinal
 +
| Does not burn
 +
|
 +
|
 +
|}
  
 
== Synonyms and Related Terms ==
 
== Synonyms and Related Terms ==
Line 28: Line 701:
 
fibers; fibre (Br., Fr.); fibra (Esp.); vezel (Ned); fibrous substance;
 
fibers; fibre (Br., Fr.); fibra (Esp.); vezel (Ned); fibrous substance;
  
−
== Other Properties ==
+
== For easy printing and to download ==
−
 
 
−
Fibers are characterized by their shape, strength, elasticity, flexibility, weight, stability and ability to absorb moisture
 
−
 
 
−
== Additional Information ==
 
−
 
 
−
G.Cook, ''Handbook of Textile Fibres:I. Natural Fibres'', 5th edition, Merrow Publishing Co., Durham, England, 1984.
 
−
 
 
−
== Comparisons ==
 
  
 
[[media:download_file_49.pdf|Properties of Synthetic Fibers]]
 
[[media:download_file_49.pdf|Properties of Synthetic Fibers]]
Line 44: Line 709:
 
[[media:download_file_51.pdf|Fiber Burn Tests]]
 
[[media:download_file_51.pdf|Fiber Burn Tests]]
  
−
 
+
== Resources and Citations ==
−
 
+
* Wikipedia: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber Fiber] Accessed Oct. 2024
−
== Authority ==
+
* G.Cook, ''Handbook of Textile Fibres:I. Natural Fibres'', 5th edition, Merrow Publishing Co., Durham, England, 1984.
−
 
+
* J.Gordon Cook, ''Handbook of Textile Fibres:II Man-made Fibres'', Merrow Publishing Co. , Durham, England
 
* ''Fairchild's Dictionary of Textiles'', Phyllis G.Tortora, Robert S. Merkel (eds.), Fairchild Publications, New York City, 7th edition, 1996
 
* ''Fairchild's Dictionary of Textiles'', Phyllis G.Tortora, Robert S. Merkel (eds.), Fairchild Publications, New York City, 7th edition, 1996
−
 
 
* Hoechst Celanese Corporation, ''Dictionary of Fiber & Textile Technology'' (older version called Man-made Fiber and Textile Dictionary, 1965), Hoechst Celanese Corporation, Charlotte NC, 1990
 
* Hoechst Celanese Corporation, ''Dictionary of Fiber & Textile Technology'' (older version called Man-made Fiber and Textile Dictionary, 1965), Hoechst Celanese Corporation, Charlotte NC, 1990
−
 
 
* ''The Dictionary of Paper'', American Paper Institute, New York, Fourth Edition, 1980
 
* ''The Dictionary of Paper'', American Paper Institute, New York, Fourth Edition, 1980
−
 
 
* E.J.LaBarre, ''Dictionary and Encyclopedia of Paper and Paper-making'', Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, 1969
 
* E.J.LaBarre, ''Dictionary and Encyclopedia of Paper and Paper-making'', Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, 1969
−
 
 
* R. J. Gettens, G.L. Stout, ''Painting Materials, A Short Encyclopaedia'', Dover Publications, New York, 1966
 
* R. J. Gettens, G.L. Stout, ''Painting Materials, A Short Encyclopaedia'', Dover Publications, New York, 1966
−
 
 
* G.S.Brady, ''Materials Handbook'', McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1971
 
* G.S.Brady, ''Materials Handbook'', McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1971
−
 
 
* Mary-Lou Florian, Dale Paul Kronkright, Ruth E. Norton, ''The Conservation of Artifacts Made from Plant Materials'', The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 1990
 
* Mary-Lou Florian, Dale Paul Kronkright, Ruth E. Norton, ''The Conservation of Artifacts Made from Plant Materials'', The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 1990
−
 
 
* Matt Roberts, Don Etherington, ''Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: a Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology'', U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1982
 
* Matt Roberts, Don Etherington, ''Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: a Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology'', U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1982
−
 
 
* A.Lucas, J.R.Harris, ''Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries'', Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London, 4th edition, 1962
 
* A.Lucas, J.R.Harris, ''Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries'', Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London, 4th edition, 1962
−
 
 
* Theodore J. Reinhart, 'Glossary of Terms', ''Engineered Plastics'', ASM International, 1988
 
* Theodore J. Reinhart, 'Glossary of Terms', ''Engineered Plastics'', ASM International, 1988
−
 
+
* Art and Architecture Thesaurus Online, https://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/aat/, J. Paul Getty Trust, Los Angeles, 2000
−
* Art and Architecture Thesaurus Online, http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/aat/, J. Paul Getty Trust, Los Angeles, 2000
 
  
  
  
−
[[Category:Materials database]]
+
[[Category:Materials database]][[Category:MWG]][[Category:Comparisons]][[Category: Sheet, Fabric]]

Latest revision as of 13:21, 14 October 2024

Coiled fiber basket
MFA# 99.134

Description

A long, thin filament with a length at least 100 times its diameter. Fibers are used to make fabric, paper, mats and as fillers and strengtheners in composite materials. Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural fibers, but for clothing natural fibers have some benefits, such as comfort, over their synthetic counterparts.

Examples of each type include:

The types of fiber are characterized as:

  • staple: short fibers.
  • monofilaments: continuous single fibers.
  • Tow: a continuous strand of bundled but untwisted fibers.
  • Yarn: a continuous strand of twisted fibers.

Physical characteristics of fibers include:

  • shape, strength, elasticity, flexibility, weight, stability and ability to absorb moisture

Properties of Synthetic Fibers (Part 1)

Fiber Composition Development date Common trade name Density Denier (g/9000m) Tenacity (g/denier) Elongation at break (%) Initial modulus Moisture
regain (%)
acetate cellulose triacetate 1919 Celanese; Arnel;
Tenite 		1.25-1.35 1.1-1.4
(dry); 0.65-
0.75 wet) 		25-35 (dry);
35-45 (wet) 		35-40 6.5
acrylic >85% acrylonitrile 1950 Acrilan, Creslan, Courtelle, Orlon 1.16-1.18 2-8 2-3.6 (dry) 20-55 25-63 1.0-3.0
aramid (meta) poly-m-phenylene terephthalamide Nomex, Conex 1.38 2-5 3-6 2-30 130-150 3.5
aramid (para) poly-p-phenylene terephthalamide 1965 Kevlar 1.44 1.0-1.5 25-30 3-6 500-
1000 		7.0
azlon protein 1930s Aralac, Ardil, Lanital 1.25-1.3 0.9-1.1
(dry); 0.3-
0.6 (wet) 		60-70 14
modacrylic 35-85% acrylonitrile 1949 Dynel; Verel, SEF 1.35-1.37 2-8 1.8-2.5
(dry); 1.7-
2.4 (wet) 		35-48 25-56 0.4-4.0
nylon 6 polycaprolactam 1939 Perlon; Kapron, Power silk 1.14 1.5-5 3.8-8.3
(dry); 3.5-
7.1 (wet) 		16-50 (dry);
19-55 (wet) 		25-35 3.5-5.0
nylon 6,6 polyhexamethylene adipamide 1935 Fiber 66; Antron; Stainmaster 1.14 1.5-5 4.6-9.0
(dry); 4.0-
7.7 (wet) 		19-40%
(dry); 32-
46% (wet) 		33-46 3.8-4.5
nytril >85% vinylidene dintrile 1955;
discontinued in 1970s 		Darvan 1.18 2.0 (dry);
1.7 (wet) 		30 2-3
polyester polyester terephthalate 1941 Dacron, Terylene; Hollytex 1.5-5 2.2-9.5 10-50 25-50 0.1-0.4
polyethylene high density polyethylene 1954 Tyvek; Reevon 0.95-0.96 2-10 5.0-8.0 14-20 <0.1
polypropylene polypropylene 1957 Herculon, Marvess 0.85-0.94 2-10 3.5-9.0 15-35 29-45 <0.1
polyurethane >85%polyurethane 1958 spandex, Lycra 1.20-1.25 2.5-20 0.5-1.5 500-700 0.3-1.2
polyvinyl chloride >85% vinyl chloride units vinyon;
Evilon, Thermovyl 		1.38-1.40 2.7-3.0 (wet
or dry) 		12-20 0
rayon (cupro) regenerated cellulose 1890 Cuprama; Cupresa 1.54 2-3 1.7-2.3
(dry); 1.1-
1.135 (wet) 		10-17 (dry);
17-23 (wet) 		11-12.5
rayon (viscose) regenerated cellulose 1892 Avtex 1.46-1.54 2-3 2.0-2.6
(wdry); 1.0-
1.5 (wet) 		13-15 (dry);
20-40 (wet) 		11-16.6
vinal >50% vinyl alcohol units 1924 Synthofil; Vinylon 1.26-1.30 3.0 -8.5
(dry); 3.2-
7.6 (wet) 		9-26 (dry);
10-27 (wet) 		3.0-9.0

Properties of Synthetic Fibers (Part 2)

Fiber Degradation Dyes used Microscopic characteristics Applications
acetate Degrades in acids and concentrated alkalis disperse irregular cross section with multiple lobes; lengthwise striations coats, suits, linings, cigarette filters
acrylic Susceptible to heat; accumulates static charge basic, disperse, pigment variable cross section subsitute for wool in coats, sweaters, hosiery, blankets, filters
aramid (meta) Degraded by acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents and UV light fiber is smooth; cross section is dogbone filter bags for hot stack gases, flame-resistant clothing
aramid (para) Degraded by acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents and UV light fiber is smooth, cross section is circular radial tires belts, bulletproof vests, resin reinforcements
azlon Degraded by alkalis; weak when wet; susceptible to microbiological growths diameter=20-30 microns, cross section is circular or bean-shaped, filament is smooth silk substitute
modacrylic Resistant to alkalis and acids flame-resistant clothing, artificial fur, children's sleepwear, tents
nylon 6 Degraded by concentrated acids and phenol; resistant to alkalis and most organic solvents acid, disperse, mordant, pigment, reactive fiber is smooth, cross section is circular hosiery, lingerie, sports garments, upholstery
nylon 6,6 Degraded by concentrated acids and phenol; resistant to alkalis and most organic solvents acid, disperse, mordant, pigment, reactive fiber is smooth, cross section is circular or trilobal tires, ropes, seat belts, parachutes, fishing lines and nets; surgical sutures; brushes
nytril Resistant to sunlight, oxidation and insects. opaque, white with flattened or hook-shaped cross section sweaters, pile fabrics, in wool blends
polyester Degrades in strong acids, strong alkalis and creson. disperse, pigment smooth fibers; cross section may be circular, trilobal or polygon permanent press clothing, fiberfill, carpets, sewing thread, seat belts, yarns, nonwoven fabrics
polyethylene Resistant to acids, alkalis and bleaches; dissolves in dry-cleaning solvents, degrades slowly in sunlight basic, disperse pigments cross section is circular or elliptical cordage, webbing; upholstery, outdoor applications
polypropylene Resistant to strong acids and alkalis; resistant to biodeterioration basic, disperse pigments cross section is circular or elliptical upholstery, carpets, ropes, nets, disposable nonwoven fabrics
polyurethane Chlorine causes slow degradation acid, disperse, reactive, vat elastomeric fabrics; swimwere; althletic clothes
polyvinyl chloride Soluble in chlorinated and aromatic solvents; degrades with heat and light basic,
disperse, pigment 		irregular cross section elastomeric fabrics; outdoor fabrics (tents, awnings, rain gear etc)
rayon (cupro) Degrades in strong alkalis, acids and undiluted bleaches. Resistant to dry cleaning solvents circular cross section with no striations sheer fabrics and netting; lightbulb filaments
rayon (viscose) Degrades in strong alkalis, acids and undiluted bleaches. Resistant to dry cleaning solvents direct lengthwise striations; early samples have circular cross sections with serrations, later samples may be dog-boned or trilobal rugs, cotton substitute, nonwoven fabrics, paper (cellophane)
vinal Resistant to microorganisms, insects, and most chemicals. fibers are smooth; cross section is round, ben-shaped or u-shaped raincoats, jackets, umbrellas, tarps, fishnets, awnings.

Properties of Natural Fibers

Fiber Type Source Microscopic characteristics Fber length Fiber width (microns) Strength/flexibility Appearance Other characteristics (conductivity, density, moisture) Deterioration Use
alpaca animal Lama pacos overlapping scales 8 cm (undercoat) elastic and strong soft, lustrous; usually white but may be black or brown textiles, linings
camel animal Camelus bactrianus overlapping scales; cross section is circular to oval; medulla is narrow and continuous. 30 cm (outer hairs); 2.5-15 cm (undercoat) strong; Tensile strength = 1.78 g/d ; elongation = 39-40% lightweight, fine, and soft; tan or brown poor heat conductor; moisture regain=13% sweaters, scarves, coats, blankets, brushes
cashmere animal Capra hireus overlapping scales (5-7 per 100 mincrons) 5.0-12.5 cm (outer);
2.5-9.0 cm (undercoat) 		15 soft and fine damaged by alkalis shawls, fabrics, dreses, sweaters
horsehair animal family Equidae overlapping scales mane: 7.5-20 cm; tail: 20-90 cm mane: 50-150;
tail 75-280 		stiff and elastic; cannot be spun upholstery, blankets, stuffing
llama animal Lama glama overlapping scales; medulla is narrow and often pigmented. Cross section is circular to ovoid 30 cm (undercoat) smooth, long, fine texture coats, dresses
mohair animal Capra angorensis overlapping scales (about 5 per 100 microns); circular cross scetion; medulla is normally invisible 250-500 mm resilient, twice as strong as wool; elongation = 30% soft, white, silky resists water; moisture regain=13% resistant to soiling; susceptible to moths textiles, upholstery, blankets, draperies, carpets,
vicuña animal Vicugna vicugna overlapping scales 5 cm soft, lightweight, finer than alpaca or camel
wool animal Caprinae family overlapping scales 38-125 mm (fine), 65-150 mm (med.), 125-375 mm (long) 17 ( fine), 24-
34 (medium);
40 (long) 		low tensile strength; good elasticity; elongation = 25-35% poor heat conductivity; density=1.32-1.34; absorbs water and dries slowly; moisture regain=15-18% fibers may shrink/felt with high temperatures and friction; susceptible to moths textiles, blankets, carpets
hemp bast Cannabis sativa 1-2 m 9-40 durable and strong but weaker than flax resistant to wear under water Damaged by acids and bleaches; resistant to water and alkalis cordage, ropes, sails
jute bast Corchorus capsularis polygonal cross section (5 or 6 sides); may have discontinuous, fine striations and bundled fibers 1.5-3 m 7-18 weaker than hemp or flax; elongation, = 1.7%(dry) density=1.5; weak when wet; moisture regain=13.75% cordage, coarse textiles, mats, gunny sacks, carpets
kenaf bast Hibiscus cannabinus polygonal cross section
linen bast Linum usitatissimum bamboo-like joints 6-65 mm 8-32 stronger than cotton; elongation = 1.8% (dry), 2.2% (wet) pale yellow absorbs water but dries quickly; moisture regain=12% damaged by bleach; not susceptible to biological growth; resistant to alkalis textiles, lace, thread
ramie bast Bochmeria nivea numerous striations 15-20 cm 12-82 stronger than flax or hemp lustrous, translucent,stiff, wrinkles easily moisture regain=12% Resistant to mildew and insects textiles (Chinese linen, Canton linen, grass cloth, grass linen)
abaca leaf Musa textilis 1-5 m hard and strong absorbs moisture readily cordage
istle leaf Agave species cordage, coarse textiles, mats,
pina leaf Ananas comosus oval cross section 10-20 cm strong and flexible translucent and thin with silky luster textiles, mats, bags
sisal leaf Agave sisalana horseshoe shaped cross section 60-120 cm weaker and less flexible than hemp smooth and straight disintegrates in salt water ropes, twine, thread
silk moths many species, such as Bombyx mori glass rod; before degumming silk has irregular masses of sericin holding two filaments together 250-750 m excellent tensile strength; good elasticity; elongation = 20-25% (dry), 30% (wet) very lustrous when degummed poor heat conductor; moisture regain=11% strong soaps cause yellowing; degraded by sunlight; acids cause yellowing; susceptible to carpet beetles clothing; decorative fabrics
coir seed hair Cocos nucifera 12-20 cm stiff and elastic (like horsehair) coarse brown fibers resistant to water ropes,brushes, mats
cotton seed hair Gossypium hirsutum narrow, twisted ribbon 1.6-6.0 cm high tensile strength; poor elasticity; elongation = 5-10% usually white; turns blue when treated with iodine and sulphuric acid good heat conductivity; poor electrical conductivity; density=1.54-1.56; absorbs water, dries slowly; moisture regain=7.0-8.0% may mildew, not attacked by moths; degraded by acids, resistant to alkalis textiles, cordage
kapok seed hair Ceiba pentandra cross section is oval or circular 20-32 mm 20 resilient, lightweight silky; turns yellow when treated with iodine and sulphuric acid resists water, buoyant, fries quickly stuffing (mattresses, pillows, life preservers)

Fiber Burn Tests

Fiber Appearance Odor Residue
Natural fibers
Cotton Burns very fast with a bright yellow flame, similar to paper burnt paper burnt ends look bushy
Linen Burns very fast with a bright yellow flame, similar to paper burnt paper burnt ends appear melted together
Silk Burns and bubbles faster than wool with a yellow flame burnt hair (mild) black, brittle, spherical beads
Weighted silk Does not burn; the fabric will char burnt hair (faint) fabric retains shape
Wool Burns slowly; bubbles while burning; easy to put out flame burnt hair (strong) black, brittle, irregular beads
Synthetic fibers
Acrylic Burns readily with smoky flame acidic hard ash
Aramid Does not burn
Cellulose acetate Burns fast with a yellow flame; may melt and sputter burnt paper hard, black beads; similar to silk
Modacrylic Self-extinguishing
Nylon Melts first, then ignites and burns rapidly. burnt plastic
Polyester Difficult to ignite, self-extinguishing. Burns with shiny, yellow-orange, sooty flame. sweet hard ash
Polyethylene Burns with a heavy, sooty, waxy smoke. Softens at 120 C.
Polypropylene Burns with a heavy, sooty, waxy smoke.
Polyurethane Burns with bright flame and minimal smoke
Polyvinyl chloride Burns with green smoky flame, self- extinguishing. acidic; releases hydrochloric acid
Rayon (regenerated cellulose) Burns very fast with a bright yellow flame, similar to paper burnt paper light, white ash
Vinal Does not burn

Synonyms and Related Terms

fibers; fibre (Br., Fr.); fibra (Esp.); vezel (Ned); fibrous substance;

For easy printing and to download

Properties of Synthetic Fibers

Properties of Natural Fibers

Fiber Burn Tests

Resources and Citations

  • Wikipedia: Fiber Accessed Oct. 2024
  • G.Cook, Handbook of Textile Fibres:I. Natural Fibres, 5th edition, Merrow Publishing Co., Durham, England, 1984.
  • J.Gordon Cook, Handbook of Textile Fibres:II Man-made Fibres, Merrow Publishing Co. , Durham, England
  • Fairchild's Dictionary of Textiles, Phyllis G.Tortora, Robert S. Merkel (eds.), Fairchild Publications, New York City, 7th edition, 1996
  • Hoechst Celanese Corporation, Dictionary of Fiber & Textile Technology (older version called Man-made Fiber and Textile Dictionary, 1965), Hoechst Celanese Corporation, Charlotte NC, 1990
  • The Dictionary of Paper, American Paper Institute, New York, Fourth Edition, 1980
  • E.J.LaBarre, Dictionary and Encyclopedia of Paper and Paper-making, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, 1969
  • R. J. Gettens, G.L. Stout, Painting Materials, A Short Encyclopaedia, Dover Publications, New York, 1966
  • G.S.Brady, Materials Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1971
  • Mary-Lou Florian, Dale Paul Kronkright, Ruth E. Norton, The Conservation of Artifacts Made from Plant Materials, The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 1990
  • Matt Roberts, Don Etherington, Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: a Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1982
  • A.Lucas, J.R.Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London, 4th edition, 1962
  • Theodore J. Reinhart, 'Glossary of Terms', Engineered Plastics, ASM International, 1988
  • Art and Architecture Thesaurus Online, https://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/aat/, J. Paul Getty Trust, Los Angeles, 2000

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